Chapter 7 India’S Cultural Roots

The Vedas And Vedic Culture

India possesses an ancient culture with deep roots and diverse expressions. Many scholars trace some of these cultural origins back to the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation (discussed in Chapter 6). Over millennia, numerous schools of thought have emerged and shaped India's distinctive identity.

What Are The Vedas?

The term "Veda" comes from the Sanskrit word 'vid', meaning 'knowledge'. The Vedas are the oldest known texts of India and are among the most ancient in the world. There are four main Vedas:

1. The Rig Veda (the most ancient)
2. The Yajur Veda
3. The Sama Veda
4. The Atharva Veda

These texts consist of thousands of hymns – poetic prayers and songs – originally composed in an early form of the Sanskrit language. They originated in the Sapta Sindhava region (the land of seven rivers in the northwest Indian Subcontinent).

The precise dates of composition for the Rig Veda are debated by experts, ranging from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BCE. Remarkably, these hymns were meticulously preserved and transmitted orally across approximately 100 to 200 generations with very few changes. This tradition of oral transmission is recognized by UNESCO as a 'masterpiece of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity'.

The Vedic hymns were composed by both male seers (rishis) and female seers (rishikas). They addressed various deities (gods and goddesses) such as Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, and Sarasvati, who were seen as upholding ṛitam, the cosmic order and truth in both the universe and human life.

A central idea in the Vedic worldview is the recognition of the underlying unity behind multiple forms of the divine. A famous hymn from the Rig Veda states: "ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti..." which translates to "The Existent is one, but sages give it many names." This signifies a perception of one supreme reality manifesting in diverse ways.

The Rig Veda also emphasizes unity among people, with verses calling for collective purpose, agreement in thoughts, and union in hearts.

Vedic Society

Early Vedic society was organized into larger groups called janas, or clans. The Rig Veda mentions over 30 such clans, including the Bharatas, Purus, and Kurus, each associated with a specific area in the northwest of the Subcontinent.

Information about their system of governance is limited in the Vedas, but terms like raja (king or ruler), sabha (a gathering or assembly), and samiti (another form of assembly) provide some clues about their political structures.

The Vedic texts also mention a variety of professions and occupations present in society, such as agriculturists, weavers, potters, builders, carpenters, healers, dancers, barbers, and priests.

Vedic Schools Of Thought

Vedic culture included practices like rituals (often referred to as yajña), which were performed with offerings to deities like Agni (the fire deity) for individual and collective welfare and well-being. These rituals evolved in complexity over time.

A subsequent body of texts, the Upanishads, expanded upon Vedic concepts and introduced profound philosophical ideas. These include the concepts of rebirth (the cycle of being born repeatedly) and karma (the principle that actions and their results are interconnected).

One significant school of thought that emerged from the Upanishads is known as Vedanta. Vedanta posits that everything in existence – human life, nature, and the entire universe – is ultimately one divine essence referred to as brahman (distinct from the deity Brahma). Simple yet profound mantras express this idea:

• aham brahmāsmi ("I am brahman"), meaning the individual self is divine.
• tat tvam asi ("You are That"), indicating that the individual is one with the ultimate reality.

The Upanishads also introduced the concept of ātman, the individual Self or soul, which is seen as the divine essence residing within every being, and ultimately identical with brahman. This understanding emphasizes the fundamental connection and interdependence of all things in the universe. This perspective is reflected in prayers wishing happiness and freedom from suffering for all creatures (*sarve bhavantu sukhinah*).

Several other schools of thought also developed based on Vedic principles in the early 1st millennium BCE. Yoga, for example, developed specific practices aimed at realizing this divine essence (brahman) within one's consciousness. Together, these schools formed the foundation for what is known today as Hinduism.

Stories from the Upanishads, such as those of Shvetaketu and Nachiketa, highlight the importance of inquiry, questioning, and the pursuit of knowledge about the nature of reality and the Self. The dialogue between Gārgī and Yājñavalkya further demonstrates the tradition of philosophical debate and the depth of inquiry into the nature of brahman.

Buddhism

In the 1st millennium BCE, other influential schools of thought emerged in India that did not base their authority on the Vedas. One such school is Buddhism.

Buddhism traces its origin to Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince born in Lumbini (modern Nepal) around the 6th century BCE. His life changed dramatically when, exposed for the first time to suffering (old age, sickness, death), he decided to renounce his privileged life to seek the root cause of human suffering. After years of ascetic practice and meditation, he attained enlightenment under a pipal tree in Bodh Gaya (Bihar).

Upon enlightenment, Siddhārtha became known as the 'Buddha', meaning 'the enlightened one' or 'the awakened one'. He realized that the source of suffering is rooted in avidya (ignorance) and attachment. He then developed a path to overcome these causes.

The Buddha's teachings emphasized values such as ahimsa, often translated as 'non-violence', but more accurately meaning 'non-hurting' or 'non-injuring' towards all living beings. He also stressed the importance of rigorous inner discipline. One of his sayings highlights this focus on inner purity over external rituals: "Not by water is one made pure... But one is pure in whom truth and dharma reside. Conquering oneself is greater than conquering a thousand men on the battlefield a thousand times."

The Buddha established the Sangha, a community of male followers (bhikṣhus, or monks) and later female followers (bhikṣhuṇīs, or nuns), who dedicated themselves to living by and spreading his teachings. Buddhism had a profound and lasting impact on India and spread widely across Asia, influencing numerous cultures.

Buddhist values and stories, such as those in the Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous births), were transmitted through various means, including art and oral tradition, delighting and educating people for generations.

Jainism

Jainism is another significant ancient Indian school of thought that became prominent around the same time as Buddhism, although its origins are believed to be even older.

Prince Vardhamāna was born into a royal family near Vaiśhālī (modern Bihar) in the early 6th century BCE. Like the Buddha, he renounced his worldly life in search of spiritual truth. After practicing intense ascetic discipline for 12 years, he attained 'infinite knowledge' or supreme wisdom.

He became known as 'Mahāvīra', meaning 'great hero'. The term 'Jain' or 'jina' derives from the word 'conqueror', referring not to military conquest but to the triumph over ignorance and attachments to achieve enlightenment.

Core principles of Jain teachings include ahimsa, anekāntavāda, and aparigraha. These concepts are deeply ingrained in Indian culture and share common ground with Vedantic and Buddhist thought.

• Ahimsa: As in Buddhism, this means non-violence or non-hurting. Mahāvīra's teachings strongly advocate against harming any breathing, existing, living, or sentient creature.
• Anekāntavāda: This philosophical principle means 'not just one aspect' or 'many-sidedness'. It posits that truth or reality is multifaceted and cannot be fully grasped or described from a single perspective.
• Aparigraha: Meaning 'non-possession', this principle encourages detachment from material possessions and limiting one's needs to only what is essential for living.

Jainism also emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of all living beings, from humans to the smallest organisms, recognizing that they are mutually dependent.

Stories, like that of the burglar Rohineya, illustrate Jain principles such as the importance of right action, right thinking, seeking forgiveness, and the potential for personal transformation and the pursuit of higher knowledge.

Similar to Buddhism, Jain monks and nuns travelled widely to spread their teachings, establishing monasteries and living ascetically, sometimes in rock-cut caves. Archaeological sites, like the Ellora caves which include Jain sections alongside Hindu and Buddhist ones, provide evidence of these early communities and their practices.

While sometimes labelled as 'religions', these Indian schools of thought – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and later Sikhism – encompass broader philosophical, spiritual, ethical, and social dimensions, making the term 'schools of thought' or 'belief systems' often more fitting.

Despite differences, the Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain schools shared core concepts such as dharma, karma, and rebirth, and a common quest to understand and overcome suffering and ignorance. These shared ideas form a significant part of the common 'trunk' of India's cultural tree.

Folk And Tribal Roots

In addition to the documented schools of thought, India's cultural heritage is richly nourished by extensive oral traditions, practices, and beliefs passed down through generations without written texts. These include numerous folk traditions (transmitted by common people) and tribal traditions (transmitted by indigenous groups).

A tribe is generally understood as a close-knit community of families or clans who share a common ancestry, culture, language, and often live under a chief, historically without a concept of private property. Ancient India did not have a specific term equivalent to 'tribe', viewing such groups as distinct janas living in particular environments like forests or mountains. The Indian Constitution uses the terms 'tribes' / 'tribal communities' (English) and janjāti (Hindi).

Historically, tribal communities were sometimes unfairly labelled as 'primitive'. However, deeper study has revealed their rich and complex cultures, traditions, and knowledge systems.

There has been a continuous and mutual interaction between mainstream philosophical/spiritual schools (like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism) and folk and tribal traditions throughout India's history. This has involved a free exchange and adoption of deities, concepts, legends, and rituals in both directions.

• Examples of tribal deities incorporated into mainstream worship include Jagannath at Puri and various forms of the mother-goddess found across India.
• Conversely, many tribes have adopted Hindu deities and incorporated versions of epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana into their own traditions, documented in regions from the Northeast to Tamil Nadu.

This seamless interaction stems from shared underlying concepts. For instance, in folk, tribal, and Hindu belief systems, elements of nature – mountains, rivers, trees, plants, animals, and certain stones – are often considered sacred. This reverence is linked to a belief in consciousness present within these natural forms. Tribal belief systems commonly feature the worship of many deities associated with these natural elements.

Furthermore, despite the multiplicity of deities associated with nature, many tribal groups also hold a concept of a higher divinity or supreme being. Examples include Donyipolo (Sun-Moon deity) in Arunachal Pradesh, Singbonga (creator deity) among the Munda and Santhal tribes, and the god Khandoba in central India, who in some traditions has a supreme status.

As noted by sociologist André Béteille, the influence between tribal religions and Hinduism has been reciprocal and ongoing since ancient times, leading to mutual enrichment of beliefs and practices.

Thus, folk and tribal traditions constitute vital and integral roots contributing to the diversity and richness of Indian culture.